100 Years of Discovering the Indus Valley Civilization

Why Indus Valley Civilization in the News?

September 20th, 2024, marked the 100th anniversary of the announcement of the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization by archaeologist Sir John Marshall on September 20th, 1924.

• Overview:
  This ancient civilization, spanning over 2,000 sites across 1.5 million square kilometres in India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, is renowned for its advanced urban planning and architecture.

What Was the Harappan Civilization?

• About:
  • The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), thrived around 2500 BCE along the Indus River.
  • It was the largest among the four ancient urban civilizations, alongside Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China.
  • Classified as a Bronze Age civilization, the IVC is distinguished by numerous artifacts made from copper-based alloys.
  • Harappa was first excavated by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921-22, and Mohenjo-daro was excavated by Rakhal Das Banerji in 1922.
  • Sir John Marshall, Director-General of ASI, led the excavations that uncovered the Harappa and Mohenjo-daro sites.

• Phases:
  • Early Phase (3200 BCE to 2600 BCE): This period is associated with the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley. The earliest Indus script dates back to 3000 BCE.
  • Mature Period (2600 BCE to 1900 BCE): By 2600 BCE, the IVC reached its mature stage, with early Harappan towns like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and Lothal developing into major urban centers.
  • Late Phase (1900 BCE to 1500 BCE): This phase saw the decline and eventual collapse of the Harappan Civilization.

What Were the Important Sites of the Harappan Civilization?

Key Features of the Harappan Civilization:

• Town Planning:
  • The Harappan culture was known for its advanced town planning, with cities laid out in a grid pattern.
  • Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had citadels or acropolises likely occupied by the ruling class, while lower towns comprised brick houses inhabited by common people.
  • Large granaries were used to store grains, and the widespread use of burnt bricks was a notable difference from the sun-dried bricks used in contemporary Egyptian structures.
  • Mohenjo-daro boasted an impressive drainage system, with most houses having courtyards and bathrooms, and many homes in Kalibangan even had private wells.
  • At Dholavira and Lothal in Gujarat, the entire settlement was fortified, with internal sections divided by walls.
• Agriculture:
  • Harappan villages, primarily located near floodplains, were highly productive, growing crops like wheat, barley, peas, sesame, lentils, chickpeas, rai, and mustard.
  • Millets were cultivated, especially in Gujarat, although rice was rare. The people of the Indus Valley were among the first to produce cotton (referred to as “Sindon” by the Greeks).
  • While agriculture is evidenced by grain remains, reconstructing specific farming techniques remains challenging.
  • In addition to farming, animal husbandry was common.
• Economy:
  • Trade was a cornerstone of Harappan life, as seen in the widespread use of seals, a uniform script, and standardized weights and measures.
  • Major trade items included stone, metal, and shell, with a barter system in place, as metal currency did not exist.
  • Navigation was practiced along the Arabian Sea coast, and a trading colony in northern Afghanistan facilitated commerce with Central Asia.
  • The Harappans traded with Mesopotamia (Tigris-Euphrates region), and long-distance trade in lapis lazuli (a blue semi-precious stone) likely elevated the social status of the ruling class.
• Crafts:
  • Harappans were skilled in bronze manufacturing, using copper from Rajasthan (Khetri mines) and possibly tin from Afghanistan.
  • Textile impressions on objects suggest knowledge of weaving.
  • Key crafts included boat-making, bead-making, seal-making, and terracotta production.
  • Goldsmiths crafted jewelry from gold, silver, and precious stones.
  • The potter’s wheel was widely used, producing glossy, distinctive pottery.
• Religion:
  • Numerous terracotta figurines of women suggest the worship of a fertility goddess, akin to the Egyptian goddess Isis.
  • A male deity, identified as Pashupati Mahadeva (depicted in a yogi posture), is shown on a seal with three horned heads, surrounded by animals such as elephants, tigers, rhinoceros, and buffalo.
  • Symbols of the phallus (male sex organ) and female sex organs indicate fertility worship.
  • The Harappans revered animals and trees, with the unicorn (possibly a rhinoceros) and the humped bull being particularly significant.
  • Amulets, possibly used for protection or religious purposes, were common.

What Were the Possible Reasons for the Decline of the Harappan Civilization?

• Invasion Theory: Some scholars suggest that Indo-European tribes, known as the Aryans, invaded and overthrew the IVC. However, the presence of cultural continuity in later civilisations casts doubt on the abrupt invasion theory.
• Natural Environmental Changes: More widely accepted are theories involving environmental factors:
  • Tectonic Activity: Earthquakes may have altered river courses, leading to the drying up of essential water sources.
  • Changes in Rainfall Patterns: Shifts in monsoon patterns could have reduced agricultural productivity, resulting in food shortages.
  • Flooding: Altered river courses might have caused flooding in key agricultural areas, further threatening the civilization’s stability.

Recent Initiatives Related to IVC Sites

• National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC): Under the Sagarmala program, the Ministry of Ports, Shipping, and Waterways (MoPSW) is developing an NMHC at Lothal. This complex will include a museum, theme parks, a research institute, and more, showcasing India’s maritime history and heritage to attract tourists.
• Dholavira Added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List: In July 2021, Dholavira was designated as India’s 40th World Heritage Site by UNESCO.
• Development of Rakhigarhi as an Iconic Site: The Union Budget for 2020-21 proposed the development of Rakhigarhi (Hisar district, Haryana) as an iconic site.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

Q1. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, evaluate the following statements: (2011)

1. It was mainly a secular civilization, with religion playing a minor role.
2. Cotton was utilized for textile production in India during this era.

Which of the statements above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (c)

Q2. Which of the following statements characterize the people of the Indus Civilization? (2013)

1. They had impressive palaces and temples.
2. They worshiped both male and female deities.
3. They used horse-drawn chariots in warfare.

Select the correct statements using the codes below:

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1, 2, and 3
(d) None of the above

Answer: (b)

Mains

Q1: Discuss how the ancient civilization of the Indian subcontinent differed from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, particularly in terms of the preservation of its culture and traditions to the present day. (2015)

Q2: Assess the extent to which the urban planning and culture of the Indus Valley Civilization have influenced contemporary urbanization. (2014)

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